Foliar architecture differentially restrains metal sequestration capacity in wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in hyper-chloride-contaminated soils

Anthropogenic activities, such as industrial wastewater and use of water softeners, cause hyper-accumulation of Cl⁻ in water sources and soils. Currently, industries have no sustainable method to remove these Cl⁻ ions from wastewater. This study was conducted to evaluate the integrative responses of wheat cultivated in five industrial effluent–affected areas (S2–S6) by investigating soil characters and bioaccumulation of metals in wheat plants and grains. The S4 site (near the second chloride outlet) exhibited a higher concentration of CO₂, SO₂, NO₂, Cl⁻, Cd, Mn, Ni, Cr, and Zn. Soil from S6 (sewage wastewater downstream getting mixed with chloride-contaminated water) had a minimum level of nutrients (Na, K, and Ca), maximum metals (Cd, Fe, Pb, Mn), and reduction in plant biomass. In site S2 (sewage wastewater upstream of the chloride factory), a higher level of minerals and metals was noted in the roots. Maximum metals in grains occurred in S6 with higher organic osmolytes. The sequestration capacity of metals in leaves was also increased by alterations in anatomical traits. Results indicated that metals and hyper-Cl⁻ concentration employed a negative influence on the plants because of poor soil quality, extremely damaged microstructures leading to reduced yield, poor grain quality, and excessive translocation from roots to wheat grains. These findings revealed that contaminated plants used as either green forage or hay are noxious to animals and if used as grain for feed or humans can lead to serious health hazards.